神马文学网Christianity
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Christianity is amonotheistic[1]religion centered on the life and teachings ofJesus of Nazareth.[2] Christians believe Jesus to be theSon of God and theMessiahprophesied in theOld Testament, and they see theNew Testament as the record of theGospel that wasrevealed by Jesus. With an estimated 2.1 billion adherents in 2001, Christianity is theworld‘s largest religion.[3] It is the predominant religion inEurope, theAmericas,Southern Africa, thePhilippines andOceania.[4] It is also growing rapidly inAsia, particularly inChina andSouth Korea.[5]
Christianity began as an offshoot ofJudaism,[6] and includes theHebrew Bible, known to Christians as the Old Testament, within its canon.[7] Like Judaism andIslam, Christianity is classified as anAbrahamic religion (see also,Judeo-Christian).[8][9]
The name "Christian" (Greek Χριστιαν?ςStrong‘s G5546), meaning "belonging to Christ" or "partisan of Christ",[10] was first applied to thedisciples inAntioch, as recorded inActs 11:26.[11] The earliest recorded use of the term "Christianity" (Greek Χριστιανισμ?ς) is byIgnatius of Antioch.[12]
Contents
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1 Beliefs1.1 Jesus Christ1.2 Death and Resurrection1.3 Sin and Salvation1.4 The Trinity1.4.1 Non-Trinitarians
1.5 Scriptures1.5.1 Interpretation
1.6 Creeds1.7 Eschaton and afterlife
2 Worship and practices2.1 Christian life2.1.1 Christian Love (Agape in Christianity)
2.2 Liturgical worship2.2.1 Sacraments2.2.2 Eucharist2.2.3 Liturgical Calendar
2.3 Symbols
3 History and origins4 Persecution5 Christian divisions5.1 Mainstream Christianity5.2 Ecumenism
6 Current controversies and criticisms7 See also7.1 History and denominations
8 Notes9 Bibliography9.1 Primary sources9.2 Secondary sources9.3 Popular Media
10 Further reading11 External links
Beliefs
A depiction of Jesus and Mary, theTheotokos of Vladimir (12th century)
Although Christianity has always had a significant diversity of belief, most Christian branches share a common set of doctrines that they hold as essential to their faith.
Jesus Christ
Main article:Jesus
As indicated by the name "Christianity", the focus of Christian theology is a belief inJesus as theMessiah orChrist. The title "Messiah" comes from theHebrew word ???????? (māšiá?) meaning "the anointed one" or "King." The Greek translation Χριστ?ς (Christos) is the source of the English wordChrist.
Christians believe that, as the Messiah, Jesus was anointed as ruler and savior of humanity, and hold that Jesus‘s coming was the fulfilment ofmessianic prophecies of theOld Testament. The Christian concept of the Messiah differs significantly fromthe contemporary Jewish concept.[13] The core Christian belief is that, throughthe death and resurrection of Jesus, the perfect Son of God, mankind is reconciled to God and thereby attains salvation by grace and the promise ofeternal life to all who trust in Christ. The need for salvation was caused byoriginal sin.
While there have been theological disputes over the nature of Jesus, most Christians believe that Jesus isGod incarnate and "true God and true man" (or both fully divine and fully human). Jesus,having become fully human in all respects, including the aspect ofmortality, suffered the pains and temptations of mortal man, yet he did not sin. As fully God, he defeated death and rose to life again. According to theBible, "God raised him from the dead",[14] heascended to heaven, to the "right hand of God",[15] and willreturn again[16] to fulfil the rest ofMessianic prophecy such as theResurrection of the dead, theLast Judgment and establishment of theKingdom of God (See alsoMessianism andMessianic Age).
According to theGospels, Jesus was conceived by theHoly Spirit andborn fromthe virgin Mary. Little of Jesus‘ childhood is recorded in the Gospels compared to his adulthood, especially the week before his death. The Biblical accounts of Jesus‘ ministry includehis baptism,miracles,teachings and deeds.
Death and Resurrection
Main article:Death and Resurrection of Jesus
The Crucifixion by Diego Velázquez (17th Century)
Most Christians consider the death of Jesus, followed by his resurrection, the cornerstone of their faith[17] and the most important event in history.[18]
According to the Gospels, Jesus and his followers went toJerusalem the week of thePassover where they wereeagerly greeted by a crowd. In Jerusalem, Jesuscleansed the Temple,[19] and predicted its destruction[20] - heightening conflict with the Jewish authorities who were plotting his death.[21]
After sharing hislast meal with his disciples, Jesus went to pray in theGarden of Gethsemane where he was betrayed by his discipleJudas Iscariot andarrested by the temple guard on orders from theSanhedrin and the high priestCaiaphas. Jesus wasconvicted by the Sanhedrin of blasphemy and transferred to theRoman governorPilate, who had him crucified for inciting rebellion. Jesus died by late afternoon and was entombed.
Christians believe that God raised Jesus from the dead on the third day, that Jesus appeared to his apostles and other disciples,commissioned his disciples to "make disciples of all nations, baptizing themin the name of the Father and of the Son (Jesus) and of the Holy Spirit."[22] andascended toheaven. Christians also believe that God sent the disciples the Holy Spirit (orParaclete).[23]
The purpose of this death and resurreciton is described in various doctrines ofatonement. Some see Jesus as aSacrifice orsubstitutionary atonement made to purify humanity like many other sacrifices described in the Old Testament. Others see Jesus‘ dying and suffering on the cross as a sign and demonstration from God that he was willing to endure the sin and punishment because of hisagape (parental, self-sacrificing) love for humanity. In another interpretation of Jesus‘ death and resurrection, The Book of John compares the crucifixion of Jesus to the lifting up of theNehushtan (snake pole) saying that "Just as Moses lifted up the snake in the desert, so the Son of Man must be lifted up, that everyone who believes in him may have eternal life. For God so loved the world that he gave his one and only Son, that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life." (John 3:14-John 3:16)
Sin and Salvation
Main article:Sin
Main article:Salvation
Christians believesalvation is a gift byunmerited grace of God, who sent Jesus as the savior. Christians believe that through faith in Jesus one can be saved fromsin and spiritualdeath. The crucifixion of Jesus is explained as anatoningsacrifice, which, in the words of theGospel of John, "takes away the sins of the world". Reception of salvation is related tojustification.[24]
The operation and effects of grace are understood differently by different traditions.Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy teach the necessity of thefree will to cooperate with grace.[25]Reformed theology places distinctive emphasis on grace by teaching that mankind is completelyincapable of self-redemption, but the grace of God overcomeseven the unwilling heart.[26]
The Trinity
Main article:Trinity
TheHospitality of Abraham by Andrei Rublev: The three angels represent the three persons of God
Most Christians believe that God is spirit (John 4:24), an uncreated,omnipotent and eternal being, the creator and sustainer of all things, who works the redemption of the world through his Son, Jesus Christ.
Against this background, belief in thedivinity of Christ and the Holy Spirit was expressed as the doctrine of theHoly Trinity,[27], which describes the single Divinesubstance existing as three distinct and inseparable persons: theFather, the Son (Jesus Christ theeternal Word), and theHoly Spirit. According to the doctrine, God is not divided in the sense that each person has a third of the whole; rather, each person is considered to be fully God (seePerichoresis). The distinction lies in their relations, the Father being unbegotten, the Son begotten of the Father, and the Holy Spirit proceeding.[28] "Begotten", in these formulae, does not refer to Mary‘s conceiving Jesus, but to the Son‘s relationship to the Father, which is described as being "eternally begotten" of the Father.
Trinitarian Christian also conceive of salvation as one work of the triune God, in which "the three divine persons act together as one, and manifest their own proper characteristics."[29]
Trinitarian Christians trace the orthodox formula of the Trinity — Father, Son, and Holy Spirit — back to the resurrected Jesus himself, who used this phrase in theGreat Commission (Matthew 28:16-20).
Most Christians believe the Holy Spirit inspired the Scriptures,[30] and that his active participation in a believer‘s life (even to the extent of "indwelling" within the believer), joining the believer‘s free actions with his own, is essential to living a Christian life.[31] InCatholic, Orthodox, and someAnglican theology, this indwelling is received through the sacrament calledConfirmation or, in the East,Chrismation. Most Protestant traditions teach that the gift of the Holy Spirit is symbolized by baptism; however some (Baptists and comparable groups) do not attribute any sacramental significance to baptism.Pentecostal and Charismatic Protestants believe thebaptism with the Holy Spirit is a distinct experience separate from other experiences like conversion or water baptism, and many Pentecostals believe it will always—or at least usually—be evident throughglossolalia (speaking in tongues).
Non-Trinitarians
Main article:Nontrinitarianism
In antiquity, and again following theReformation, several sects advocated views contrary to the Trinity. These views were rejected by many bishops such asIrenaeus and subsequently by theEcumenical Councils. During the Reformation, though most Catholics, Orthodox, and Protestants accepted the value of many of the Councils, some groups rejected these councils as spiritually tainted.[32]Clement Ziegler,Casper Schwenckfeld, andMelchior Hoffman advanced the view that Christ was only divine and not human.Michael Servetus denied the divinity of Christ, as did others who were tried at Augsburg in 1527.[33]
Modalists, such asOneness Pentecostals, regard God as a single person, with the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit considered modes or roles by which the unipersonal God expresses himself.[34]
Latter-day Saints accept the divinity of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, but deny that they are the same being, believing them to be separate beings united only in will and purpose.[35] (seeGodhead)
Present day groups who do not consider Jesus to be God includeUnitarians,[36] descendants of Reformation eraSocinians andJehovah‘s Witnesses.[37]
Scriptures
Main article:Bible
Christianity regards theBible, a collection ofcanonical books in two parts, theOld Testament and theNew Testament, as authoritative: written by human authors under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit and thereforeinerrant.[38] Protestants believe that the scriptures contain allrevealed truth necessary for salvation (SeeSola scriptura).[39]
The Old Testament contains the entire JewishTanakh, though in the Christian canon the books are ordered differently and some books of the Tanakh are divided into several books by the Christian canon. The Catholic and Orthodox canons include the Hebrew Jewish canon and other books (from the Septuagint Greek Jewish canon) which Catholics callDeuterocanonical, while Protestants consider themApocrypha.[40]
The first four books of the New Testament are theGospels (Matthew,Mark,Luke andJohn), which recount the life and teachings of Jesus. The first three are often calledsynoptic because of the amount of material they share. The rest of the New Testament consists of a sequel to Luke‘s Gospel, theActs of the Apostles, which describes the very early history of the Church, a collection of letters from early Christian leaders to congregations or individuals, thePauline andGeneral epistles, and theapocalypticBook of Revelation.[40]
Some traditions maintain othercanons. TheEthiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church maintains two canons, the Narrow Canon, itself larger than any Biblical canon outside Ethiopia, and the Broad Canon, which has even more books.[41]TheLatter-day Saints hold the Bible and three additional books to be the inspired word of God: theBook of Mormon, theDoctrine and Covenants, and thePearl of Great Price.[42]
Interpretation
Though Christians largely agree on the content of the Bible, there is significant divergence in its interpretation, orexegesis. In antiquity, two schools of exegesis developed inAlexandria andAntioch. Alexandrine interpretation, exemplified byOrigen, tended to read Scriptureallegorically, while Antiochene interpretation adhered to the literal sense, holding that other meanings (called theoria) could only be accepted if based on the literal meaning.[43]
Catholic theology distinguishes two senses of scripture: the literal and the spiritual, the latter being subdivided into the allegorical, moral, andanagogical senses. The literal sense is "the meaning conveyed by the words of Scripture and discovered by exegesis, following the rules of sound interpretation." The allegorical sense includestypology, for example theparting of the Red Sea is seen as a "type" of or sign of baptism;[44] the moral sense contains ethical teaching; the anagogical sense includes eschatology and applies to eternity and theconsummation of the world.[45] Catholic theology also adds other rules of interpretation, which include the injunction that all other senses of sacred scripture are based on the literal,[46] that the historicity of the Gospels must be absolutely and constantly held,[47] that scripture must be read within the "living Tradition of the whole Church",[48] and that "the task of interpretation has been entrusted to the bishops in communion with the successor of Peter, theBishop of Rome."[49]
Many Protestants stress the literal sense orhistorical-grammatical method,[50] even to the extent of rejecting other senses altogether. Martin Luther advocated "one definite and simple understanding of Scripture".[51] Other Protestant interpreters make use of typology.[52] Protestants characteristically believe that ordinary believers may reach an adequate understanding of Scripture because Scripture itself is clear (or "perspicuous"), because of the help of the Holy Spirit, or both. Martin Luther believed that without God‘s help Scripture would be "enveloped in darkness",[51] butJohn Calvin wrote, "all who refuse not to follow the Holy Spirit as their guide, find in the Scripture a clear light."[53] TheSecond Helvetic Confession said, "we hold that interpretation of the Scripture to be orthodox and genuine which is gleaned from the Scriptures themselves (from the nature of the language in which they were written, likewise according to the circumstances in which they were set down, and expounded in the light of like and unlike passages and of many and clearer passages)." The writings of the Church Fathers, and decisions of Ecumenical Councils, though "not despise[d]", were not authoritative and could be rejected.[54]
Creeds
Main article:Creeds
Creeds, or concise doctrinal statements, began as baptismal formulas and were later expanded during theChristological controversies of thefourth andfifth centuries. The earliest creeds still in common use are theApostles‘ Creed (text in Latin and Greek, with English translations) and Paul‘s creed of1 Cor 15:1-9.
Wikisource has original text related to this article:Nicene Creed
TheNicene Creed, largely a response toArianism, was formulated at the Councils ofNicaea andConstantinople in 325 and 381 respectively,[55] and ratified as the universal creed of Christendom by theCouncil of Ephesus in431.[56]
TheChalcedonian Creed, developed at theCouncil of Chalcedon in 451,[57] (though not accepted by theOriental Orthodox Churches)[58] taught Christ "to be acknowledged in two natures, inconfusedly, unchangeably, indivisibly, inseparably": one divine and one human, that both natures are perfect but are neverthelessperfectly united into one person.[59]
TheAthanasian Creed (English translations), received in the western Church as having the same status as the Nicene and Chalcedonian, says: "We worship one God in Trinity, and Trinity in Unity; neither confounding the Persons not dividing the Substance."[60]
Most Protestants accept the Creeds. Some Protestant traditions believe Trinitarian doctrine without making use of the Creeds themselves,[61] while other Protestants, like theRestoration Movement, oppose the use of creeds.[62]
Eschaton and afterlife
Main article:Christian eschatology
Most Christians believe that upon the death of the body, the individualsoul, which is considered to be immortal, experiences theparticular judgment and is either rewarded withheaven or condemned tohell. The elect are called "saints" (Latin sanctus: "holy") and the process of being made holy is called sanctification. In Catholicism, those who die in a state of grace but with either unforgiven venial sins or incompletepenance undergo purification inpurgatory to achieve the holiness necessary for entrance into heaven.
At thelast coming of Christ, the eschaton orend of time, all who have died will beresurrected bodily from the dead for theLast Judgement, whereupon Jesus will fully establish theKingdom of God in fulfillment ofscriptural prophecies.[63]
Some groups do not distinguish a particular judgment from thegeneral judgment at the end of time, teaching instead that souls remain in stasis until this time (seeSoul sleep). These groups, and others that do not believe in theintercession of saints, generally do not employ the word "saint" to describe those in heaven.Universalists hold that eventually all will experience salvation, thereby rejecting the concept of an eternal hell for those who are not saved.
Worship and practices
Christian life
Christians believe thatJesus is the mediator of theNew Covenant (seeHebrews 8:6)(and1Timothy2:5). His famousSermon on the Mount representingMount Zion is considered by many Christian scholars to be theantitype[64] of the proclamation of theOld Covenant byMoses fromMount Sinai
Christians believe that all people should strive to follow Christ in their everyday actions. For many, this includes obedience to theTen Commandments[65][66] This love includes such injunctions as "feed the hungry" and "shelter the homeless", and applies tofriend and enemy alike. Though the relationship between charity and religious practice are sometimes taken for granted today, asMartin Goodman has observed, "charity in the Jewish and Christian sense was unknown to the pagan world."[67] Other Christian practices include acts ofpiety such asprayer and Bible reading.
Christianity teaches that one can only overcome sin through divine grace: moral and spiritual progress can only occur with God‘s help through the gift of theHoly Spirit dwelling within the believer. Christians believe that by sharing in Christ‘s life, death, and resurrection, and by believing in Christ, they become dead to sin and are resurrected to a new life with Him.
Christian Love (Agape in Christianity)
Main article:Christian Love
See also:1 Corinthians 13
Agapē (IPA: [ɑ?gɑ.pε] orIPA: [?ɑgɑ?pε]) (Gk. αγ?πη [a??a.pi]), is one of severalGreek words translated into English as love. The word has been used in different ways by a variety of contemporary and ancient sources, includingBiblical authors. Many have thought that this word represents divine, unconditional, self-sacrificing, active, volitional, and thoughtfullove. Greek philosophers at the time ofPlato and other ancient authors used the term to denote love of a spouse or family, or affection for a particular activity, in contrast tophilia — an affection that could denote either brotherhood or generally non-sexual affection, anderos, an affection of a sexual nature, usually between two unequal partners. The term agape is rarely used in ancient manuscripts, but was used by the early Christians to refer to the self-sacrificing love ofGod for humanity, which they were committed to reciprocating and practicing towards God and among one another.
Agape has been expounded on by many Christian writers in a specifically Christian context.Thomas Jay Oord has defined agape as "an intentional response to promote well-being when responding to that which has generated ill-being."
Agape received a broader usage under later Christian writers as the word that specifically denoted "Christian" love or "charity" (1Corinthians 13:1–8), or even God himself (1 John 4:8, Theos ein agape, "God is Love"). TheNew Testament provides a number of definitions and examples of agape that generally expand on the meanings used in ancient texts, denoting brotherly love, love of one‘s spouse or children, and the love of God for all people.
The Christian usage of the term agape comes directly from the canonical Gospels‘ account of the teachings ofJesus. When asked what was the greatest commandment, Jesus said, "‘Love (agape) the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your mind.‘ This is the first and greatest commandment. And the second is like it: ‘Love (agape) your neighbor as yourself.‘ All the Law and the Prophets hang on these two commandments." (Matthew 22:37-41)
At theSermon on the Mount, Jesus said:
You have heard that it was said, ‘Love (agape) your neighbor and hate your enemy.‘ But I tell you: Love (agape) your enemies and pray for those who persecute you, that you may be sons of your Father in heaven. He causes his sun to rise on the evil and the good, and sends rain on the righteous and the unrighteous. If you love those who love you, what reward will you get?
Christian writers have generally described agape, as expounded on by Jesus, as a form of love which is both unconditional and voluntary; that is, it is non-discriminating, has no pre-conditions, and is something that one decides to do.Saint Paul described love as follows: "Love (agape) is patient, love is kind. It does not envy, it does not boast, it is not proud. It is not rude, it is not self-seeking, it is not easily angered, it keeps no record of wrongs. Love does not delight in evil but rejoices with the truth. It always protects, always trusts, always hopes, always perseveres. Love never fails" (1Corinthians 13:4-8a).Tertullian, in his 2nd century defense of Christians remarks how Christian love attracted pagan notice: "What marks us in the eyes of our enemies is our loving kindness. ‘Only look‘ they say, ‘look how they love one another‘" (Apology 39).
Liturgical worship
Justin Martyr described second century Christianliturgy in hisFirst Apology (c. 150) toEmperorAntoninus Pius, and his description remains relevant to thebasic structure of Christian liturgical worship:
The Holy Bible,Crucifix, andRosary
"And on the day called Sunday, all who live in cities or in the country gather together to one place, and the memoirs of the apostles or the writings of the prophets are read, as long as time permits; then, when the reader has ceased, the president verbally instructs, and exhorts to the imitation of these good things. Then we all rise together and pray, and, as we before said, when our prayer is ended, bread and wine and water are brought, and the president in like manner offers prayers and thanksgivings, according to his ability, and the people assent, saying Amen; and there is a distribution to each, and a participation of that over which thanks have been given, and to those who are absent a portion is sent by the deacons. And they who are well to do, and willing, give what each thinks fit; and what is collected is deposited with the president, who succours the orphans and widows and those who, through sickness or any other cause, are in want, and those who are in bonds and the strangers sojourning among us, and in a word takes care of all who are in need."[68]
Thus, as Justin described, Christians assemble for communal worship on Sunday, the day of the resurrection, though other liturgical practices often occur outside this setting. Scripture readings are drawn from the Old and New Testaments, but especially the Gospels. Often these are arranged on anannual cycle, using a book called alectionary. Instruction is given based on these readings, called asermon, or homily. There are a variety of congregationalprayers, including thanksgiving, confession, and intercession, which occur throughout the service and take a variety of forms including recited, responsive, silent, or sung. TheLord‘s Prayer, or Our Father, is regularly prayed. The Eucharist (also calledHoly Communion, or theLord‘s Supper) consists of a ritual meal of consecrated bread and wine, discussed in detail below. Lastly, a collection occurs in which the congregation donates money for the support of the Church and forcharitable work.
Some groups depart from this traditional liturgical structure. A division is often made between "High"church services, characterized by greater solemnity and ritual, and "Low" services, but even within these two categories there is great diversity in forms of worship.Seventh-day Adventists meet on Saturday (the originalSabbath), while others do not meet on a weekly basis.Charismatic orPentecostal congregations may spontaneously feel led by the Holy Spirit to action rather than follow a formal order of service, including spontaneous prayer.Quakers sit quietly until moved by the Holy Spirit to speak. SomeEvangelical services resemble concerts withrock and pop music, dancing, and use of multimedia. For groups which do not recognize a priesthood distinct from ordinary believers the services are generally lead by aminister,preacher, orpastor. Still others may lack any formal leaders, either in principle or by local necessity. Some churches use onlya cappella music, either on principle (e.g. manyChurches of Christ object to the use of instruments in worship) or by tradition (as in Orthodoxy).
Worship can be varied for special events likebaptisms orweddings in the service or significantfeast days. In theearly church Christians and those yet to complete initiation would separate for the Eucharistic part of the worship. In many churches today, adults and children will separate for all or some of the service to receive age-appropriate teaching. Such children‘s worship is often calledSunday school or Sabbath school (Sunday schools are sometimes held before rather than during services).
Sacraments
Main article:Sacrament
See also:Sacraments of the Catholic Church
TheEucharist
Asacrament is a Christian rite that is an outward sign of an inward grace, instituted by Christ to sanctify humanity. Catholic, Orthodox, and someAnglican Christians describeChristian worship in terms of seven sacraments:Baptism,Confirmation orChrismation,Eucharist (communion),Penance (reconciliation),Anointing of the Sick (last rites),Holy Orders (ordination), andMatrimony.[69] Many Protestant groups, followingMartin Luther,[70] recognize the sacramental nature of baptism and Eucharist, but not usually the other five in the same way, while other Protestant groups reject sacramental theology. Latter-day saint worship emphasizes the symbolic role of rites, calling someordinances. Though not sacraments,Pentecostal,Charismatic, andHoliness Churches emphasize "gifts of the Spirit" such asspiritual healing,prophecy,exorcism,glossolalia (speaking in tongues), andlaying on of hands where God‘s grace is mysteriously manifest.
Eucharist
Main article:Eucharist
TheEucharist (also calledHoly Communion, or theLord‘s Supper) is the part of liturgical worship that consists of a consecrated meal, usually bread and wine. Justin Martyr described the Eucharist as follows:
"And this food is called among us Eukaristia [the Eucharist], of which no one is allowed to partake but the man who believes that the things which we teach are true, and who has been washed with the washing that is for the remission of sins, and unto regeneration, and who is so living as Christ has enjoined. For not as common bread and common drink do we receive these; but in like manner as Jesus Christ our Saviour, having been made flesh by the Word of God, had both flesh and blood for our salvation, so likewise have we been taught that the food which is blessed by the prayer of His word, and from which our blood and flesh by transmutation are nourished, is the flesh and blood of that Jesus who was made flesh."[71]
Orthodox, Roman Catholics, Lutherans, and many Anglicans believe that the bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ (the doctrine of theReal Presence). Most other Protestants, especially Reformed, believe the bread and wine represent the body and blood of Christ. These Protestants may celebrate it less frequently, while in Catholicism the Eucharist is celebrated daily. Catholic and Orthodox view communion as indicating those who are already united in the church, restricting participation to their members not in a state ofmortal sin. In some Protestant churches participation is by prior arrangement with a church leader. Other churches view communion as a means to unity, rather than an end, and invite all Christians or even anyone to participate.
Liturgical Calendar
Main article:Liturgical year
In the New TestamentPaul of Tarsus organised his missionary travels around the celebration ofPentecost. (Acts 20.16 and 1 Corinthians 16.8) This practice draws from Jewish tradition, with such feasts as theFeast of Tabernacles, thePassover, and theJubilee. Today Catholics, Eastern Christians, and traditional Protestant communities frame worship around aliturgical calendar. This includesholy days, such assolemnities which commemorate an event in the life of Jesus or thesaints, periods offasting such asLent, and other pious events such asmemoria or lesser festivals commemorating saints. Christian groups that do not follow a liturgical tradition often retain certain celebrations, such asChristmas,Easter andPentecost. A few churches make no use of a liturgical calendar.
Symbols
Today the best-known Christian symbol is thecross, which refers to the method of Jesus‘ execution.[72] Several varieties exist, with some denominations tending to favor distinctive styles: Catholics thecrucifix, Orthodox thecrux orthodoxa, and Protestants an unadorned cross. An earlier Christian symbol was the ‘ichthys‘ fish (Greek Alpha - α) symbol and anagram. Other text based symbols include ‘IHS or ICXC‘ and ‘chi-rho‘ (the first two letters of the word Christ in Greek). In a modernRoman alphabet, the Chi-Rho appears like an X (Chi - χ) with a large P (Rho - ρ) overlaid and above it. It is saidConstantine saw this symbol prior to converting to Christianity (see History and origins section below). Another ancient symbol is ananchor, which denotes faith and can incorporate a cross within its design.
History and origins
Main article:History of Christianity
See also:Timeline of Christianity andEarly ChristianitySee also:Christian philosophy,Christian art,Christian literature,Christian music, andChristian architecture
An icon depicting theFirst Council of Nicaea
In the mid-first century, Christianity spread beyond its Jewish origins under the leadership of the Apostles, especiallyPeter andPaul. Within a generation an episcopal hierarchy can be seen, and this would form the structure of the Church.[73]Christianity spread east to Asia and throughout the Roman Empire, despitepersecution by the Roman Emperors until itslegalization byEmperor Constantine in 313. During his reign, questions of orthodoxy lead to the convocation of the first Ecumenical Council, that ofNicaea.
In 391Theodosius I establishedNicene Christianity as the official and, except forJudaism, only legal religion in theRoman Empire. Later, as thepolitical structure of the empire collapsed in the West, the Church assumed political and cultural roles previously held by the Roman aristocracy. Eremitic and Coenobiticmonasticism developed, originating with the hermitSt Anthony of Egypt around 300. With the avowed purpose of fleeing the world and its evils in contemptu mundi, the institution of monasticism would become a central part of the medieval world.[74]
Christianity became the established church of the Axumite Kingdom (presently encompassing Eritrea and Northern Ethiopi ) under king Ezana in the 4th century through the efforts of a Syrian Greek named Frumentius, known in Ethiopia as Abba Selama, Kesaté Birhan ("Father of Peace, Revealer of Light"), thus making Ethiopia one of the first christian state even before most of Europe. As a youth, Frumentius had been shipwrecked with his brother Aedesius on the Eritrean coast. The brothers managed to be brought to theroyal court, where they rose to positions of influence and converted Emperor Ezana to Christianity, causing him to be baptised. Ezana sent Frumentius to Alexandria to ask the Patriarch,St. Athanasius, to appoint a bishop for Ethiopia. Athanasius appointed Frumentius himself, who returned to Ethiopia as Bishop with the name of Abune Selama.
During theMigration Period ofLate Antiquity, variousGermanic peoples adopted Christianity. Meanwhile, as western political unity dissolved, the linguistic divide of the Empire between Latin-speaking West and the Greek-speaking East intensified. By theMiddle Ages distinct forms of Latin and Greek Christianity increasingly separated untilcultural differences and disciplinary disputes finally resulted in theGreat Schism (conventionally dated to 1054), which formally dividedChristendom into the Catholic west and the Orthodox east.Western Christianity in theMiddle Ages was characterized by cooperation and conflict between thesecular rulers and the Church under thePope, and by the development ofscholastic theology and philosophy.
Beginning in the7th century,Muslim rulers began a long series of military conquests of Christian areas, and it quickly conquered areas of theByzantine Empire inAsia Minor, Palestine, Syria, Egypt, andNorth Africa, and even captured southernSpain. Numerous military struggles followed, including theCrusades, the SpanishReconquista, theFall of Constantinople and the aggression of theTurks.
Martin Luther
In the earlysixteenth century, increasing discontent with corruption and immorality among the clergy resulted in attempts to reform the Church and society. TheProtestant Reformation began afterMartin Luther published his95 theses in 1517, whilst theRoman Catholic Church experienced internal renewal with theCounter-Reformation and theCouncil of Trent (1545-1563). During the following centuries, competition between Catholicism and Protestantism became deeply entangled with political struggles among European states. Meanwhile, partly from missionary zeal, but also under the impetus ofcolonial expansion by the European powers, Christianity spread to the Americas, Oceania,East Asia, andsub-Saharan Africa.
In the Modern Era, Christianity was confronted with various forms ofskepticism and with certain modernpolitical ideologies such asliberalism,nationalism, andsocialism. This included theanti-clericalism of the French Revolution, the Spanish Civil War, and general hostility of Marxist movements, especiallythe Russian Revolution.
Persecution
Main article:Persecution of Christians
Main article:Historical persecution by Christians
Christians have frequently suffered frompersecution. Starting withJesus, the early Christian church was persecuted by state and religious establishments from its earliest beginnings. Notable early Christians such asStephen, eleven of the Apostles as well asPaul died as martyrs according to tradition. Systematic Roman persecution of Christians culminated in theGreat Persecution of Diocletian and ended with theEdict of Milan.[75] Persecution of Christians persisted or even intensified in other places, such as inSassanid Persia.[76] Later Christians living inIslamic countries were subjected to various legal restrictions, which included taxation and a ban on building or repairing churches. Christians at times also suffered violent persecution or confiscation of their property[77]
There was persecution of Christians during theFrench Revolution (seeDechristianisation of France during the French Revolution).[78] State restrictions on Christian practices today are generally associated with those authoritarian governments which either support a majority religion other than Christianity (as inMuslim states),[79] or tolerate only churches under government supervision, sometimes while officially promoting stateatheism (as inNorth Korea). ThePeople‘s Republic of China allows only government-regulated churches and has regularly suppressedhouse churches and underground Catholics. The public practice of Christianity is outlawed inSaudi Arabia. Areas of persecution include other parts of theMiddle East, theSudan, andKosovo.[80]
Christians have also been perpetrators of persecution against other religions and other Christians. Christian mobs, sometimes with government support, destroyedpagan temples and oppressed adherents of paganism (such as the philosopherHypatia of Alexandria, who was murdered by a Christian mob). Also,Jewish communities have periodically suffered violence at Christian hands[citation needed]. Christian governments have suppressed or persecuted groups seen as heretical, later in cooperation with theInquisition. Denominational strife escalated intoreligious wars.Witch hunts, carried out by secular authorities or popular mobs, were a frequent phenomenon in parts ofearly modern Europe and, to a lesser degree, North America.
Christian divisions
There is a diversity ofdoctrines and practices among groups calling themselves Christian. These groups are sometimes classified underdenominations, though for theological reasons many groups reject this classification system.[81] Christianity may be broadly represented as beingdivided into three main groupings:[82]
Roman Catholicism: TheRoman Catholic Church, the largest single body, includes theLatin Rite and totals more than 1 billion baptized members.[3]Eastern Christianity:Eastern Orthodox Churches,Oriental Orthodox Churches, the 100,000 memberAssyrian Church of the East,[83],Eastern Catholic Churches, and others with a combined membership of more than 300 million baptized members.[3]Anglicanism: The Anglican Communion is a group of Anglican andEpiscopal Churches that are descended from theChurch of England. Most Anglicans don‘t consider themselves Protestant or Catholic but believe that the Church of England always existed and wasn‘t formed during the Reformation but rather broke away from the Church of Rome.Protestantism: Groups such asLutherans,Reformed/Presbyterians,Congregational/United Church of Christ,Evangelical,Charismatic,Baptists,Methodists,Nazarenes,Anabaptists,Seventh-day Adventists,Waldensians andPentecostals. The oldest of these separated from the Roman Catholic Church in the 16th centuryProtestant Reformation, followed in many cases by further divisions. Estimates of the total number of Protestants are very uncertain, partly because of the difficulty in determining which denominations should be placed in this category, but it seems to be unquestionable that Protestantism is the second major branch of Christianity (after Roman Catholicism) in number of followers.[3]
Some Protestants identify themselves simply as Christian, or born-again Christian; they typically distance themselves from theconfessionalism of other Protestant communities[84] by calling themselves "non-denominational" — often founded by individual pastors, they have little affiliation with historic denominations. Finally, various small communities, such as theOld Catholic andIndependent Catholic Churches, are similar in name to the Roman Catholic Church, but are not incommunion with theSee of Rome (theOld Catholic church is in communion with theAnglican Church).The Roman Catholic Church was simply called the "Catholic Church" until other groups started considering themselves "Catholic". The term "Roman Catholic" was made to distinguish the Roman Catholics from other groups.[85][86][87]
Restorationists, are historically connected to the Protestant Reformation,[88] do not usually describe themselves as "reforming" aChristian Church continuously existing from the time of Jesus, but as restoring the Church that they believe was lost at some point. Restorationists includeChurches of Christ with 2.6 million members,Disciples of Christ with 800,000 members,[89]The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints with 12 million members,[3] andJehovah’s Witnesses with 6.6 million members.[90] Though Restorationists have some superficial similarities, their doctrine and practices vary significantly.
A simplified chart of historical developments of major groups within Christianity
Mainstream Christianity
Mainstream Christianity is a widely used[91] term, used to refer to collectively to the common views of major denominations of Christianity (such asRoman Catholicism,Protestantism,Anglicanism,Orthodox Christianity) as against the particular tenets of other sects orChristian denomination. The context is dependent on the particular issues addressed, but usually contrasts theorthodox majority view againstheterodox minority views. In the mostcommon sense, "mainstream" refers toNicene Christianity, or rather the traditions which continue to claim adherence to theNicene Creed.[92][93]
Some groups identifying themselves as Christian deviate from thetenets considered basic by most Christian organizations. These groups are often consideredheretical, or even non-Christian, by many mainstream Christians. This is particularly true ofnon-trinitarians.
Ecumenism
Main article:Ecumenism
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Most churches have long expressed ideals of being reconciled with each other, and in the20th Century Christianecumenism advanced in two ways. One way was greater cooperation between groups, such as theEdinburgh Missionary Conference of Protestants in1910, the Justice, Peace and Creation Commission of theWorld Council of Churches founded in1948 by Protestant and Orthodox churches, and similar national councils like theNational Council of Churches in Australia which also includes Roman Catholics.
The other way was institutional union with newUnited and uniting churches.Congregationalist,Methodist, andPresbyterian churches united in 1925 to form theUnited Church of Canada and in 1977 to form theUniting Church in Australia. TheChurch of South India was formed in 1947 by the union ofAnglican,Methodist,Congregationalist,Presbyterian, andReformed churches.
Steps towards union on a global level have also been taken in 1965 by the Catholic and Orthodox churches mutually revoking the excommunications that marked theirGreat Schism in 1054; theAnglican Roman Catholic International Commission (ARCIC) working towards full communion between those churches since 1970; and theLutheran andCatholic churches signing TheJoint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification in 1999 to address conflicts at the root of theProtestant Reformation. In 2006 theMethodist church also adopted the declaration.
Current controversies and criticisms
Main article:Criticism of Christianity
See also:Criticism of the Bible
There are many controversies surrounding Christianity as to its influences and history.
Although historians generally agree thatJesus existed, a few writers propose thatJesus is a myth,[94] and have aimed at reconstructing thehistorical Jesus. Some such writers depict Jesus as a metaphor forspiritual awakening or a fictional figure based onAncient Greek orEgyptian religions. Some writers considerPaul to be the founding figure of Christianity, pointing to the extent of his writings and the scope of hismissionary work.[95] See alsoPauline Christianity. Members of theJesus Seminar, and other Biblical scholars, have argued that the historical Jesus never claimed to be divine. They also reject the historicity of theempty tomb and thus a bodily resurrection, and several other events narrated in the gospels. They assert that Gospel accounts describing these things are probably literary fabrications.[96] Adherents ofJudaism generally believe that followers of Christianity misinterpret passages from theOld Testament, orTanakh. (See alsoJudaism and Christianity.)Muslims believe that the Christian doctrine of the Trinity is incompatible withmonotheism, and they reject the Christian teaching that Jesus is the Son of God, though they affirm thevirgin birth and view him as a prophet preceding Muhammad.[97] The Qur‘an also uses the title "Messiah", though with a different meaning.[98][99] Muslims dispute the historical occurrence of the crucifixion of Jesus (believing that while a crucifixion occurred, it was not of Jesus).[100] Muslims also believe that while Islam‘s holy book, theQuran, is the word of God, today‘sBible has been corrupted because it has gone through a human editing process.[101]
See also
AntinomianismChristian apologeticsChristian anarchismChristian calendarChristian communismChristian emigrationChristian eschatologyChristian existentialismChristian FlagChristian meditationChristian mysticismChristian mythologyChristian naturismChristian symbolismChristian stories
Christian Views About WomenChristianity and anti-SemitismChristianity and FreemasonryChristianity by countryChristianity in AfricaChristianity in ChinaChurchConservative ChristianityCriticism of ChristianityEmerging ChurchGreen ChristianityHistoricity of JesusHomosexuality and ChristianityJohn 3:16
Judaism and ChristianityLiberal ChristianityList of ChristiansList of notable converts to ChristianityList of Christian MissionariesList of religionsMatthew 10:34New Testament view on Jesus‘ lifeProgressive ChristianityReligious ministriesSabbathTheonomy
History and denominations
Christian theologyEastern Christianity portalGreat SchismProtestant Reformation
RestorationismList of Christian denominationsSocial GospelThird Church
Christianity began as an offshoot ofJudaism,[6] and includes theHebrew Bible, known to Christians as the Old Testament, within its canon.[7] Like Judaism andIslam, Christianity is classified as anAbrahamic religion (see also,Judeo-Christian).[8][9]
The name "Christian" (Greek Χριστιαν?ςStrong‘s G5546), meaning "belonging to Christ" or "partisan of Christ",[10] was first applied to thedisciples inAntioch, as recorded inActs 11:26.[11] The earliest recorded use of the term "Christianity" (Greek Χριστιανισμ?ς) is byIgnatius of Antioch.[12]
Contents
[hide]
1 Beliefs1.1 Jesus Christ1.2 Death and Resurrection1.3 Sin and Salvation1.4 The Trinity1.4.1 Non-Trinitarians
1.5 Scriptures1.5.1 Interpretation
1.6 Creeds1.7 Eschaton and afterlife
2 Worship and practices2.1 Christian life2.1.1 Christian Love (Agape in Christianity)
2.2 Liturgical worship2.2.1 Sacraments2.2.2 Eucharist2.2.3 Liturgical Calendar
2.3 Symbols
3 History and origins4 Persecution5 Christian divisions5.1 Mainstream Christianity5.2 Ecumenism
6 Current controversies and criticisms7 See also7.1 History and denominations
8 Notes9 Bibliography9.1 Primary sources9.2 Secondary sources9.3 Popular Media
10 Further reading11 External links
Beliefs
A depiction of Jesus and Mary, theTheotokos of Vladimir (12th century)
Although Christianity has always had a significant diversity of belief, most Christian branches share a common set of doctrines that they hold as essential to their faith.
Jesus Christ
Main article:Jesus
As indicated by the name "Christianity", the focus of Christian theology is a belief inJesus as theMessiah orChrist. The title "Messiah" comes from theHebrew word ???????? (māšiá?) meaning "the anointed one" or "King." The Greek translation Χριστ?ς (Christos) is the source of the English wordChrist.
Christians believe that, as the Messiah, Jesus was anointed as ruler and savior of humanity, and hold that Jesus‘s coming was the fulfilment ofmessianic prophecies of theOld Testament. The Christian concept of the Messiah differs significantly fromthe contemporary Jewish concept.[13] The core Christian belief is that, throughthe death and resurrection of Jesus, the perfect Son of God, mankind is reconciled to God and thereby attains salvation by grace and the promise ofeternal life to all who trust in Christ. The need for salvation was caused byoriginal sin.
While there have been theological disputes over the nature of Jesus, most Christians believe that Jesus isGod incarnate and "true God and true man" (or both fully divine and fully human). Jesus,having become fully human in all respects, including the aspect ofmortality, suffered the pains and temptations of mortal man, yet he did not sin. As fully God, he defeated death and rose to life again. According to theBible, "God raised him from the dead",[14] heascended to heaven, to the "right hand of God",[15] and willreturn again[16] to fulfil the rest ofMessianic prophecy such as theResurrection of the dead, theLast Judgment and establishment of theKingdom of God (See alsoMessianism andMessianic Age).
According to theGospels, Jesus was conceived by theHoly Spirit andborn fromthe virgin Mary. Little of Jesus‘ childhood is recorded in the Gospels compared to his adulthood, especially the week before his death. The Biblical accounts of Jesus‘ ministry includehis baptism,miracles,teachings and deeds.
Death and Resurrection
Main article:Death and Resurrection of Jesus
The Crucifixion by Diego Velázquez (17th Century)
Most Christians consider the death of Jesus, followed by his resurrection, the cornerstone of their faith[17] and the most important event in history.[18]
According to the Gospels, Jesus and his followers went toJerusalem the week of thePassover where they wereeagerly greeted by a crowd. In Jerusalem, Jesuscleansed the Temple,[19] and predicted its destruction[20] - heightening conflict with the Jewish authorities who were plotting his death.[21]
After sharing hislast meal with his disciples, Jesus went to pray in theGarden of Gethsemane where he was betrayed by his discipleJudas Iscariot andarrested by the temple guard on orders from theSanhedrin and the high priestCaiaphas. Jesus wasconvicted by the Sanhedrin of blasphemy and transferred to theRoman governorPilate, who had him crucified for inciting rebellion. Jesus died by late afternoon and was entombed.
Christians believe that God raised Jesus from the dead on the third day, that Jesus appeared to his apostles and other disciples,commissioned his disciples to "make disciples of all nations, baptizing themin the name of the Father and of the Son (Jesus) and of the Holy Spirit."[22] andascended toheaven. Christians also believe that God sent the disciples the Holy Spirit (orParaclete).[23]
The purpose of this death and resurreciton is described in various doctrines ofatonement. Some see Jesus as aSacrifice orsubstitutionary atonement made to purify humanity like many other sacrifices described in the Old Testament. Others see Jesus‘ dying and suffering on the cross as a sign and demonstration from God that he was willing to endure the sin and punishment because of hisagape (parental, self-sacrificing) love for humanity. In another interpretation of Jesus‘ death and resurrection, The Book of John compares the crucifixion of Jesus to the lifting up of theNehushtan (snake pole) saying that "Just as Moses lifted up the snake in the desert, so the Son of Man must be lifted up, that everyone who believes in him may have eternal life. For God so loved the world that he gave his one and only Son, that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life." (John 3:14-John 3:16)
Sin and Salvation
Main article:Sin
Main article:Salvation
Christians believesalvation is a gift byunmerited grace of God, who sent Jesus as the savior. Christians believe that through faith in Jesus one can be saved fromsin and spiritualdeath. The crucifixion of Jesus is explained as anatoningsacrifice, which, in the words of theGospel of John, "takes away the sins of the world". Reception of salvation is related tojustification.[24]
The operation and effects of grace are understood differently by different traditions.Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy teach the necessity of thefree will to cooperate with grace.[25]Reformed theology places distinctive emphasis on grace by teaching that mankind is completelyincapable of self-redemption, but the grace of God overcomeseven the unwilling heart.[26]
The Trinity
Main article:Trinity
TheHospitality of Abraham by Andrei Rublev: The three angels represent the three persons of God
Most Christians believe that God is spirit (John 4:24), an uncreated,omnipotent and eternal being, the creator and sustainer of all things, who works the redemption of the world through his Son, Jesus Christ.
Against this background, belief in thedivinity of Christ and the Holy Spirit was expressed as the doctrine of theHoly Trinity,[27], which describes the single Divinesubstance existing as three distinct and inseparable persons: theFather, the Son (Jesus Christ theeternal Word), and theHoly Spirit. According to the doctrine, God is not divided in the sense that each person has a third of the whole; rather, each person is considered to be fully God (seePerichoresis). The distinction lies in their relations, the Father being unbegotten, the Son begotten of the Father, and the Holy Spirit proceeding.[28] "Begotten", in these formulae, does not refer to Mary‘s conceiving Jesus, but to the Son‘s relationship to the Father, which is described as being "eternally begotten" of the Father.
Trinitarian Christian also conceive of salvation as one work of the triune God, in which "the three divine persons act together as one, and manifest their own proper characteristics."[29]
Trinitarian Christians trace the orthodox formula of the Trinity — Father, Son, and Holy Spirit — back to the resurrected Jesus himself, who used this phrase in theGreat Commission (Matthew 28:16-20).
Most Christians believe the Holy Spirit inspired the Scriptures,[30] and that his active participation in a believer‘s life (even to the extent of "indwelling" within the believer), joining the believer‘s free actions with his own, is essential to living a Christian life.[31] InCatholic, Orthodox, and someAnglican theology, this indwelling is received through the sacrament calledConfirmation or, in the East,Chrismation. Most Protestant traditions teach that the gift of the Holy Spirit is symbolized by baptism; however some (Baptists and comparable groups) do not attribute any sacramental significance to baptism.Pentecostal and Charismatic Protestants believe thebaptism with the Holy Spirit is a distinct experience separate from other experiences like conversion or water baptism, and many Pentecostals believe it will always—or at least usually—be evident throughglossolalia (speaking in tongues).
Non-Trinitarians
Main article:Nontrinitarianism
In antiquity, and again following theReformation, several sects advocated views contrary to the Trinity. These views were rejected by many bishops such asIrenaeus and subsequently by theEcumenical Councils. During the Reformation, though most Catholics, Orthodox, and Protestants accepted the value of many of the Councils, some groups rejected these councils as spiritually tainted.[32]Clement Ziegler,Casper Schwenckfeld, andMelchior Hoffman advanced the view that Christ was only divine and not human.Michael Servetus denied the divinity of Christ, as did others who were tried at Augsburg in 1527.[33]
Modalists, such asOneness Pentecostals, regard God as a single person, with the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit considered modes or roles by which the unipersonal God expresses himself.[34]
Latter-day Saints accept the divinity of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, but deny that they are the same being, believing them to be separate beings united only in will and purpose.[35] (seeGodhead)
Present day groups who do not consider Jesus to be God includeUnitarians,[36] descendants of Reformation eraSocinians andJehovah‘s Witnesses.[37]
Scriptures
Main article:Bible
Christianity regards theBible, a collection ofcanonical books in two parts, theOld Testament and theNew Testament, as authoritative: written by human authors under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit and thereforeinerrant.[38] Protestants believe that the scriptures contain allrevealed truth necessary for salvation (SeeSola scriptura).[39]
The Old Testament contains the entire JewishTanakh, though in the Christian canon the books are ordered differently and some books of the Tanakh are divided into several books by the Christian canon. The Catholic and Orthodox canons include the Hebrew Jewish canon and other books (from the Septuagint Greek Jewish canon) which Catholics callDeuterocanonical, while Protestants consider themApocrypha.[40]
The first four books of the New Testament are theGospels (Matthew,Mark,Luke andJohn), which recount the life and teachings of Jesus. The first three are often calledsynoptic because of the amount of material they share. The rest of the New Testament consists of a sequel to Luke‘s Gospel, theActs of the Apostles, which describes the very early history of the Church, a collection of letters from early Christian leaders to congregations or individuals, thePauline andGeneral epistles, and theapocalypticBook of Revelation.[40]
Some traditions maintain othercanons. TheEthiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church maintains two canons, the Narrow Canon, itself larger than any Biblical canon outside Ethiopia, and the Broad Canon, which has even more books.[41]TheLatter-day Saints hold the Bible and three additional books to be the inspired word of God: theBook of Mormon, theDoctrine and Covenants, and thePearl of Great Price.[42]
Interpretation
Though Christians largely agree on the content of the Bible, there is significant divergence in its interpretation, orexegesis. In antiquity, two schools of exegesis developed inAlexandria andAntioch. Alexandrine interpretation, exemplified byOrigen, tended to read Scriptureallegorically, while Antiochene interpretation adhered to the literal sense, holding that other meanings (called theoria) could only be accepted if based on the literal meaning.[43]
Catholic theology distinguishes two senses of scripture: the literal and the spiritual, the latter being subdivided into the allegorical, moral, andanagogical senses. The literal sense is "the meaning conveyed by the words of Scripture and discovered by exegesis, following the rules of sound interpretation." The allegorical sense includestypology, for example theparting of the Red Sea is seen as a "type" of or sign of baptism;[44] the moral sense contains ethical teaching; the anagogical sense includes eschatology and applies to eternity and theconsummation of the world.[45] Catholic theology also adds other rules of interpretation, which include the injunction that all other senses of sacred scripture are based on the literal,[46] that the historicity of the Gospels must be absolutely and constantly held,[47] that scripture must be read within the "living Tradition of the whole Church",[48] and that "the task of interpretation has been entrusted to the bishops in communion with the successor of Peter, theBishop of Rome."[49]
Many Protestants stress the literal sense orhistorical-grammatical method,[50] even to the extent of rejecting other senses altogether. Martin Luther advocated "one definite and simple understanding of Scripture".[51] Other Protestant interpreters make use of typology.[52] Protestants characteristically believe that ordinary believers may reach an adequate understanding of Scripture because Scripture itself is clear (or "perspicuous"), because of the help of the Holy Spirit, or both. Martin Luther believed that without God‘s help Scripture would be "enveloped in darkness",[51] butJohn Calvin wrote, "all who refuse not to follow the Holy Spirit as their guide, find in the Scripture a clear light."[53] TheSecond Helvetic Confession said, "we hold that interpretation of the Scripture to be orthodox and genuine which is gleaned from the Scriptures themselves (from the nature of the language in which they were written, likewise according to the circumstances in which they were set down, and expounded in the light of like and unlike passages and of many and clearer passages)." The writings of the Church Fathers, and decisions of Ecumenical Councils, though "not despise[d]", were not authoritative and could be rejected.[54]
Creeds
Main article:Creeds
Creeds, or concise doctrinal statements, began as baptismal formulas and were later expanded during theChristological controversies of thefourth andfifth centuries. The earliest creeds still in common use are theApostles‘ Creed (text in Latin and Greek, with English translations) and Paul‘s creed of1 Cor 15:1-9.
Wikisource has original text related to this article:Nicene Creed
TheNicene Creed, largely a response toArianism, was formulated at the Councils ofNicaea andConstantinople in 325 and 381 respectively,[55] and ratified as the universal creed of Christendom by theCouncil of Ephesus in431.[56]
TheChalcedonian Creed, developed at theCouncil of Chalcedon in 451,[57] (though not accepted by theOriental Orthodox Churches)[58] taught Christ "to be acknowledged in two natures, inconfusedly, unchangeably, indivisibly, inseparably": one divine and one human, that both natures are perfect but are neverthelessperfectly united into one person.[59]
TheAthanasian Creed (English translations), received in the western Church as having the same status as the Nicene and Chalcedonian, says: "We worship one God in Trinity, and Trinity in Unity; neither confounding the Persons not dividing the Substance."[60]
Most Protestants accept the Creeds. Some Protestant traditions believe Trinitarian doctrine without making use of the Creeds themselves,[61] while other Protestants, like theRestoration Movement, oppose the use of creeds.[62]
Eschaton and afterlife
Main article:Christian eschatology
Most Christians believe that upon the death of the body, the individualsoul, which is considered to be immortal, experiences theparticular judgment and is either rewarded withheaven or condemned tohell. The elect are called "saints" (Latin sanctus: "holy") and the process of being made holy is called sanctification. In Catholicism, those who die in a state of grace but with either unforgiven venial sins or incompletepenance undergo purification inpurgatory to achieve the holiness necessary for entrance into heaven.
At thelast coming of Christ, the eschaton orend of time, all who have died will beresurrected bodily from the dead for theLast Judgement, whereupon Jesus will fully establish theKingdom of God in fulfillment ofscriptural prophecies.[63]
Some groups do not distinguish a particular judgment from thegeneral judgment at the end of time, teaching instead that souls remain in stasis until this time (seeSoul sleep). These groups, and others that do not believe in theintercession of saints, generally do not employ the word "saint" to describe those in heaven.Universalists hold that eventually all will experience salvation, thereby rejecting the concept of an eternal hell for those who are not saved.
Worship and practices
Christian life
Christians believe thatJesus is the mediator of theNew Covenant (seeHebrews 8:6)(and1Timothy2:5). His famousSermon on the Mount representingMount Zion is considered by many Christian scholars to be theantitype[64] of the proclamation of theOld Covenant byMoses fromMount Sinai
Christians believe that all people should strive to follow Christ in their everyday actions. For many, this includes obedience to theTen Commandments[65][66] This love includes such injunctions as "feed the hungry" and "shelter the homeless", and applies tofriend and enemy alike. Though the relationship between charity and religious practice are sometimes taken for granted today, asMartin Goodman has observed, "charity in the Jewish and Christian sense was unknown to the pagan world."[67] Other Christian practices include acts ofpiety such asprayer and Bible reading.
Christianity teaches that one can only overcome sin through divine grace: moral and spiritual progress can only occur with God‘s help through the gift of theHoly Spirit dwelling within the believer. Christians believe that by sharing in Christ‘s life, death, and resurrection, and by believing in Christ, they become dead to sin and are resurrected to a new life with Him.
Christian Love (Agape in Christianity)
Main article:Christian Love
See also:1 Corinthians 13
Agapē (IPA: [ɑ?gɑ.pε] orIPA: [?ɑgɑ?pε]) (Gk. αγ?πη [a??a.pi]), is one of severalGreek words translated into English as love. The word has been used in different ways by a variety of contemporary and ancient sources, includingBiblical authors. Many have thought that this word represents divine, unconditional, self-sacrificing, active, volitional, and thoughtfullove. Greek philosophers at the time ofPlato and other ancient authors used the term to denote love of a spouse or family, or affection for a particular activity, in contrast tophilia — an affection that could denote either brotherhood or generally non-sexual affection, anderos, an affection of a sexual nature, usually between two unequal partners. The term agape is rarely used in ancient manuscripts, but was used by the early Christians to refer to the self-sacrificing love ofGod for humanity, which they were committed to reciprocating and practicing towards God and among one another.
Agape has been expounded on by many Christian writers in a specifically Christian context.Thomas Jay Oord has defined agape as "an intentional response to promote well-being when responding to that which has generated ill-being."
Agape received a broader usage under later Christian writers as the word that specifically denoted "Christian" love or "charity" (1Corinthians 13:1–8), or even God himself (1 John 4:8, Theos ein agape, "God is Love"). TheNew Testament provides a number of definitions and examples of agape that generally expand on the meanings used in ancient texts, denoting brotherly love, love of one‘s spouse or children, and the love of God for all people.
The Christian usage of the term agape comes directly from the canonical Gospels‘ account of the teachings ofJesus. When asked what was the greatest commandment, Jesus said, "‘Love (agape) the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your mind.‘ This is the first and greatest commandment. And the second is like it: ‘Love (agape) your neighbor as yourself.‘ All the Law and the Prophets hang on these two commandments." (Matthew 22:37-41)
At theSermon on the Mount, Jesus said:
You have heard that it was said, ‘Love (agape) your neighbor and hate your enemy.‘ But I tell you: Love (agape) your enemies and pray for those who persecute you, that you may be sons of your Father in heaven. He causes his sun to rise on the evil and the good, and sends rain on the righteous and the unrighteous. If you love those who love you, what reward will you get?
Christian writers have generally described agape, as expounded on by Jesus, as a form of love which is both unconditional and voluntary; that is, it is non-discriminating, has no pre-conditions, and is something that one decides to do.Saint Paul described love as follows: "Love (agape) is patient, love is kind. It does not envy, it does not boast, it is not proud. It is not rude, it is not self-seeking, it is not easily angered, it keeps no record of wrongs. Love does not delight in evil but rejoices with the truth. It always protects, always trusts, always hopes, always perseveres. Love never fails" (1Corinthians 13:4-8a).Tertullian, in his 2nd century defense of Christians remarks how Christian love attracted pagan notice: "What marks us in the eyes of our enemies is our loving kindness. ‘Only look‘ they say, ‘look how they love one another‘" (Apology 39).
Liturgical worship
Justin Martyr described second century Christianliturgy in hisFirst Apology (c. 150) toEmperorAntoninus Pius, and his description remains relevant to thebasic structure of Christian liturgical worship:
The Holy Bible,Crucifix, andRosary
"And on the day called Sunday, all who live in cities or in the country gather together to one place, and the memoirs of the apostles or the writings of the prophets are read, as long as time permits; then, when the reader has ceased, the president verbally instructs, and exhorts to the imitation of these good things. Then we all rise together and pray, and, as we before said, when our prayer is ended, bread and wine and water are brought, and the president in like manner offers prayers and thanksgivings, according to his ability, and the people assent, saying Amen; and there is a distribution to each, and a participation of that over which thanks have been given, and to those who are absent a portion is sent by the deacons. And they who are well to do, and willing, give what each thinks fit; and what is collected is deposited with the president, who succours the orphans and widows and those who, through sickness or any other cause, are in want, and those who are in bonds and the strangers sojourning among us, and in a word takes care of all who are in need."[68]
Thus, as Justin described, Christians assemble for communal worship on Sunday, the day of the resurrection, though other liturgical practices often occur outside this setting. Scripture readings are drawn from the Old and New Testaments, but especially the Gospels. Often these are arranged on anannual cycle, using a book called alectionary. Instruction is given based on these readings, called asermon, or homily. There are a variety of congregationalprayers, including thanksgiving, confession, and intercession, which occur throughout the service and take a variety of forms including recited, responsive, silent, or sung. TheLord‘s Prayer, or Our Father, is regularly prayed. The Eucharist (also calledHoly Communion, or theLord‘s Supper) consists of a ritual meal of consecrated bread and wine, discussed in detail below. Lastly, a collection occurs in which the congregation donates money for the support of the Church and forcharitable work.
Some groups depart from this traditional liturgical structure. A division is often made between "High"church services, characterized by greater solemnity and ritual, and "Low" services, but even within these two categories there is great diversity in forms of worship.Seventh-day Adventists meet on Saturday (the originalSabbath), while others do not meet on a weekly basis.Charismatic orPentecostal congregations may spontaneously feel led by the Holy Spirit to action rather than follow a formal order of service, including spontaneous prayer.Quakers sit quietly until moved by the Holy Spirit to speak. SomeEvangelical services resemble concerts withrock and pop music, dancing, and use of multimedia. For groups which do not recognize a priesthood distinct from ordinary believers the services are generally lead by aminister,preacher, orpastor. Still others may lack any formal leaders, either in principle or by local necessity. Some churches use onlya cappella music, either on principle (e.g. manyChurches of Christ object to the use of instruments in worship) or by tradition (as in Orthodoxy).
Worship can be varied for special events likebaptisms orweddings in the service or significantfeast days. In theearly church Christians and those yet to complete initiation would separate for the Eucharistic part of the worship. In many churches today, adults and children will separate for all or some of the service to receive age-appropriate teaching. Such children‘s worship is often calledSunday school or Sabbath school (Sunday schools are sometimes held before rather than during services).
Sacraments
Main article:Sacrament
See also:Sacraments of the Catholic Church
TheEucharist
Asacrament is a Christian rite that is an outward sign of an inward grace, instituted by Christ to sanctify humanity. Catholic, Orthodox, and someAnglican Christians describeChristian worship in terms of seven sacraments:Baptism,Confirmation orChrismation,Eucharist (communion),Penance (reconciliation),Anointing of the Sick (last rites),Holy Orders (ordination), andMatrimony.[69] Many Protestant groups, followingMartin Luther,[70] recognize the sacramental nature of baptism and Eucharist, but not usually the other five in the same way, while other Protestant groups reject sacramental theology. Latter-day saint worship emphasizes the symbolic role of rites, calling someordinances. Though not sacraments,Pentecostal,Charismatic, andHoliness Churches emphasize "gifts of the Spirit" such asspiritual healing,prophecy,exorcism,glossolalia (speaking in tongues), andlaying on of hands where God‘s grace is mysteriously manifest.
Eucharist
Main article:Eucharist
TheEucharist (also calledHoly Communion, or theLord‘s Supper) is the part of liturgical worship that consists of a consecrated meal, usually bread and wine. Justin Martyr described the Eucharist as follows:
"And this food is called among us Eukaristia [the Eucharist], of which no one is allowed to partake but the man who believes that the things which we teach are true, and who has been washed with the washing that is for the remission of sins, and unto regeneration, and who is so living as Christ has enjoined. For not as common bread and common drink do we receive these; but in like manner as Jesus Christ our Saviour, having been made flesh by the Word of God, had both flesh and blood for our salvation, so likewise have we been taught that the food which is blessed by the prayer of His word, and from which our blood and flesh by transmutation are nourished, is the flesh and blood of that Jesus who was made flesh."[71]
Orthodox, Roman Catholics, Lutherans, and many Anglicans believe that the bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ (the doctrine of theReal Presence). Most other Protestants, especially Reformed, believe the bread and wine represent the body and blood of Christ. These Protestants may celebrate it less frequently, while in Catholicism the Eucharist is celebrated daily. Catholic and Orthodox view communion as indicating those who are already united in the church, restricting participation to their members not in a state ofmortal sin. In some Protestant churches participation is by prior arrangement with a church leader. Other churches view communion as a means to unity, rather than an end, and invite all Christians or even anyone to participate.
Liturgical Calendar
Main article:Liturgical year
In the New TestamentPaul of Tarsus organised his missionary travels around the celebration ofPentecost. (Acts 20.16 and 1 Corinthians 16.8) This practice draws from Jewish tradition, with such feasts as theFeast of Tabernacles, thePassover, and theJubilee. Today Catholics, Eastern Christians, and traditional Protestant communities frame worship around aliturgical calendar. This includesholy days, such assolemnities which commemorate an event in the life of Jesus or thesaints, periods offasting such asLent, and other pious events such asmemoria or lesser festivals commemorating saints. Christian groups that do not follow a liturgical tradition often retain certain celebrations, such asChristmas,Easter andPentecost. A few churches make no use of a liturgical calendar.
Symbols
Today the best-known Christian symbol is thecross, which refers to the method of Jesus‘ execution.[72] Several varieties exist, with some denominations tending to favor distinctive styles: Catholics thecrucifix, Orthodox thecrux orthodoxa, and Protestants an unadorned cross. An earlier Christian symbol was the ‘ichthys‘ fish (Greek Alpha - α) symbol and anagram. Other text based symbols include ‘IHS or ICXC‘ and ‘chi-rho‘ (the first two letters of the word Christ in Greek). In a modernRoman alphabet, the Chi-Rho appears like an X (Chi - χ) with a large P (Rho - ρ) overlaid and above it. It is saidConstantine saw this symbol prior to converting to Christianity (see History and origins section below). Another ancient symbol is ananchor, which denotes faith and can incorporate a cross within its design.
History and origins
Main article:History of Christianity
See also:Timeline of Christianity andEarly ChristianitySee also:Christian philosophy,Christian art,Christian literature,Christian music, andChristian architecture
An icon depicting theFirst Council of Nicaea
In the mid-first century, Christianity spread beyond its Jewish origins under the leadership of the Apostles, especiallyPeter andPaul. Within a generation an episcopal hierarchy can be seen, and this would form the structure of the Church.[73]Christianity spread east to Asia and throughout the Roman Empire, despitepersecution by the Roman Emperors until itslegalization byEmperor Constantine in 313. During his reign, questions of orthodoxy lead to the convocation of the first Ecumenical Council, that ofNicaea.
In 391Theodosius I establishedNicene Christianity as the official and, except forJudaism, only legal religion in theRoman Empire. Later, as thepolitical structure of the empire collapsed in the West, the Church assumed political and cultural roles previously held by the Roman aristocracy. Eremitic and Coenobiticmonasticism developed, originating with the hermitSt Anthony of Egypt around 300. With the avowed purpose of fleeing the world and its evils in contemptu mundi, the institution of monasticism would become a central part of the medieval world.[74]
Christianity became the established church of the Axumite Kingdom (presently encompassing Eritrea and Northern Ethiopi ) under king Ezana in the 4th century through the efforts of a Syrian Greek named Frumentius, known in Ethiopia as Abba Selama, Kesaté Birhan ("Father of Peace, Revealer of Light"), thus making Ethiopia one of the first christian state even before most of Europe. As a youth, Frumentius had been shipwrecked with his brother Aedesius on the Eritrean coast. The brothers managed to be brought to theroyal court, where they rose to positions of influence and converted Emperor Ezana to Christianity, causing him to be baptised. Ezana sent Frumentius to Alexandria to ask the Patriarch,St. Athanasius, to appoint a bishop for Ethiopia. Athanasius appointed Frumentius himself, who returned to Ethiopia as Bishop with the name of Abune Selama.
During theMigration Period ofLate Antiquity, variousGermanic peoples adopted Christianity. Meanwhile, as western political unity dissolved, the linguistic divide of the Empire between Latin-speaking West and the Greek-speaking East intensified. By theMiddle Ages distinct forms of Latin and Greek Christianity increasingly separated untilcultural differences and disciplinary disputes finally resulted in theGreat Schism (conventionally dated to 1054), which formally dividedChristendom into the Catholic west and the Orthodox east.Western Christianity in theMiddle Ages was characterized by cooperation and conflict between thesecular rulers and the Church under thePope, and by the development ofscholastic theology and philosophy.
Beginning in the7th century,Muslim rulers began a long series of military conquests of Christian areas, and it quickly conquered areas of theByzantine Empire inAsia Minor, Palestine, Syria, Egypt, andNorth Africa, and even captured southernSpain. Numerous military struggles followed, including theCrusades, the SpanishReconquista, theFall of Constantinople and the aggression of theTurks.
Martin Luther
In the earlysixteenth century, increasing discontent with corruption and immorality among the clergy resulted in attempts to reform the Church and society. TheProtestant Reformation began afterMartin Luther published his95 theses in 1517, whilst theRoman Catholic Church experienced internal renewal with theCounter-Reformation and theCouncil of Trent (1545-1563). During the following centuries, competition between Catholicism and Protestantism became deeply entangled with political struggles among European states. Meanwhile, partly from missionary zeal, but also under the impetus ofcolonial expansion by the European powers, Christianity spread to the Americas, Oceania,East Asia, andsub-Saharan Africa.
In the Modern Era, Christianity was confronted with various forms ofskepticism and with certain modernpolitical ideologies such asliberalism,nationalism, andsocialism. This included theanti-clericalism of the French Revolution, the Spanish Civil War, and general hostility of Marxist movements, especiallythe Russian Revolution.
Persecution
Main article:Persecution of Christians
Main article:Historical persecution by Christians
Christians have frequently suffered frompersecution. Starting withJesus, the early Christian church was persecuted by state and religious establishments from its earliest beginnings. Notable early Christians such asStephen, eleven of the Apostles as well asPaul died as martyrs according to tradition. Systematic Roman persecution of Christians culminated in theGreat Persecution of Diocletian and ended with theEdict of Milan.[75] Persecution of Christians persisted or even intensified in other places, such as inSassanid Persia.[76] Later Christians living inIslamic countries were subjected to various legal restrictions, which included taxation and a ban on building or repairing churches. Christians at times also suffered violent persecution or confiscation of their property[77]
There was persecution of Christians during theFrench Revolution (seeDechristianisation of France during the French Revolution).[78] State restrictions on Christian practices today are generally associated with those authoritarian governments which either support a majority religion other than Christianity (as inMuslim states),[79] or tolerate only churches under government supervision, sometimes while officially promoting stateatheism (as inNorth Korea). ThePeople‘s Republic of China allows only government-regulated churches and has regularly suppressedhouse churches and underground Catholics. The public practice of Christianity is outlawed inSaudi Arabia. Areas of persecution include other parts of theMiddle East, theSudan, andKosovo.[80]
Christians have also been perpetrators of persecution against other religions and other Christians. Christian mobs, sometimes with government support, destroyedpagan temples and oppressed adherents of paganism (such as the philosopherHypatia of Alexandria, who was murdered by a Christian mob). Also,Jewish communities have periodically suffered violence at Christian hands[citation needed]. Christian governments have suppressed or persecuted groups seen as heretical, later in cooperation with theInquisition. Denominational strife escalated intoreligious wars.Witch hunts, carried out by secular authorities or popular mobs, were a frequent phenomenon in parts ofearly modern Europe and, to a lesser degree, North America.
Christian divisions
There is a diversity ofdoctrines and practices among groups calling themselves Christian. These groups are sometimes classified underdenominations, though for theological reasons many groups reject this classification system.[81] Christianity may be broadly represented as beingdivided into three main groupings:[82]
Roman Catholicism: TheRoman Catholic Church, the largest single body, includes theLatin Rite and totals more than 1 billion baptized members.[3]Eastern Christianity:Eastern Orthodox Churches,Oriental Orthodox Churches, the 100,000 memberAssyrian Church of the East,[83],Eastern Catholic Churches, and others with a combined membership of more than 300 million baptized members.[3]Anglicanism: The Anglican Communion is a group of Anglican andEpiscopal Churches that are descended from theChurch of England. Most Anglicans don‘t consider themselves Protestant or Catholic but believe that the Church of England always existed and wasn‘t formed during the Reformation but rather broke away from the Church of Rome.Protestantism: Groups such asLutherans,Reformed/Presbyterians,Congregational/United Church of Christ,Evangelical,Charismatic,Baptists,Methodists,Nazarenes,Anabaptists,Seventh-day Adventists,Waldensians andPentecostals. The oldest of these separated from the Roman Catholic Church in the 16th centuryProtestant Reformation, followed in many cases by further divisions. Estimates of the total number of Protestants are very uncertain, partly because of the difficulty in determining which denominations should be placed in this category, but it seems to be unquestionable that Protestantism is the second major branch of Christianity (after Roman Catholicism) in number of followers.[3]
Some Protestants identify themselves simply as Christian, or born-again Christian; they typically distance themselves from theconfessionalism of other Protestant communities[84] by calling themselves "non-denominational" — often founded by individual pastors, they have little affiliation with historic denominations. Finally, various small communities, such as theOld Catholic andIndependent Catholic Churches, are similar in name to the Roman Catholic Church, but are not incommunion with theSee of Rome (theOld Catholic church is in communion with theAnglican Church).The Roman Catholic Church was simply called the "Catholic Church" until other groups started considering themselves "Catholic". The term "Roman Catholic" was made to distinguish the Roman Catholics from other groups.[85][86][87]
Restorationists, are historically connected to the Protestant Reformation,[88] do not usually describe themselves as "reforming" aChristian Church continuously existing from the time of Jesus, but as restoring the Church that they believe was lost at some point. Restorationists includeChurches of Christ with 2.6 million members,Disciples of Christ with 800,000 members,[89]The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints with 12 million members,[3] andJehovah’s Witnesses with 6.6 million members.[90] Though Restorationists have some superficial similarities, their doctrine and practices vary significantly.
A simplified chart of historical developments of major groups within Christianity
Mainstream Christianity
Mainstream Christianity is a widely used[91] term, used to refer to collectively to the common views of major denominations of Christianity (such asRoman Catholicism,Protestantism,Anglicanism,Orthodox Christianity) as against the particular tenets of other sects orChristian denomination. The context is dependent on the particular issues addressed, but usually contrasts theorthodox majority view againstheterodox minority views. In the mostcommon sense, "mainstream" refers toNicene Christianity, or rather the traditions which continue to claim adherence to theNicene Creed.[92][93]
Some groups identifying themselves as Christian deviate from thetenets considered basic by most Christian organizations. These groups are often consideredheretical, or even non-Christian, by many mainstream Christians. This is particularly true ofnon-trinitarians.
Ecumenism
Main article:Ecumenism
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Most churches have long expressed ideals of being reconciled with each other, and in the20th Century Christianecumenism advanced in two ways. One way was greater cooperation between groups, such as theEdinburgh Missionary Conference of Protestants in1910, the Justice, Peace and Creation Commission of theWorld Council of Churches founded in1948 by Protestant and Orthodox churches, and similar national councils like theNational Council of Churches in Australia which also includes Roman Catholics.
The other way was institutional union with newUnited and uniting churches.Congregationalist,Methodist, andPresbyterian churches united in 1925 to form theUnited Church of Canada and in 1977 to form theUniting Church in Australia. TheChurch of South India was formed in 1947 by the union ofAnglican,Methodist,Congregationalist,Presbyterian, andReformed churches.
Steps towards union on a global level have also been taken in 1965 by the Catholic and Orthodox churches mutually revoking the excommunications that marked theirGreat Schism in 1054; theAnglican Roman Catholic International Commission (ARCIC) working towards full communion between those churches since 1970; and theLutheran andCatholic churches signing TheJoint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification in 1999 to address conflicts at the root of theProtestant Reformation. In 2006 theMethodist church also adopted the declaration.
Current controversies and criticisms
Main article:Criticism of Christianity
See also:Criticism of the Bible
There are many controversies surrounding Christianity as to its influences and history.
Although historians generally agree thatJesus existed, a few writers propose thatJesus is a myth,[94] and have aimed at reconstructing thehistorical Jesus. Some such writers depict Jesus as a metaphor forspiritual awakening or a fictional figure based onAncient Greek orEgyptian religions. Some writers considerPaul to be the founding figure of Christianity, pointing to the extent of his writings and the scope of hismissionary work.[95] See alsoPauline Christianity. Members of theJesus Seminar, and other Biblical scholars, have argued that the historical Jesus never claimed to be divine. They also reject the historicity of theempty tomb and thus a bodily resurrection, and several other events narrated in the gospels. They assert that Gospel accounts describing these things are probably literary fabrications.[96] Adherents ofJudaism generally believe that followers of Christianity misinterpret passages from theOld Testament, orTanakh. (See alsoJudaism and Christianity.)Muslims believe that the Christian doctrine of the Trinity is incompatible withmonotheism, and they reject the Christian teaching that Jesus is the Son of God, though they affirm thevirgin birth and view him as a prophet preceding Muhammad.[97] The Qur‘an also uses the title "Messiah", though with a different meaning.[98][99] Muslims dispute the historical occurrence of the crucifixion of Jesus (believing that while a crucifixion occurred, it was not of Jesus).[100] Muslims also believe that while Islam‘s holy book, theQuran, is the word of God, today‘sBible has been corrupted because it has gone through a human editing process.[101]
See also
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